Frequently asked questions

A psychometric test is a series of written or practical tests that assess a clearly defined sample of human behaviour. There are many different types of psychometric test, including measures of skill, ability, intelligence, personality, motivation and interests. Psychometric tests can play a useful role in the assessment and development of individuals. They can give objective evidence of the human attributes they measure, and have been shown to be one of the best predictors of job performance when used in selection. In practice, they are generally used in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews, to give the 'whole picture'.

To be psychometrically sound a test must be:

• Objective - the results obtained are not influenced by the administrator's personal characteristics or irrelevant factors such as the colour of a test-taker's socks.
• Standardised - the test is administered and scored according to standard procedures, and people's scores are compared to known standards.
• Reliable - the test measures in a consistent way. The potential error is small and is quantifiable.
• Valid - the test measures the characteristics which it sets out to measure. A test used to select a job applicant should predict job performance. A test of verbal ability should predict this area and not some other skill.
• Discriminating - the test should show clear differences between individuals on the behaviour being tested. It should not be discriminatory ie unfairly discriminating against minority groups on the basis of irrelevant characteristics.

Simply put, because they work.

Individual tests are among the best predictors of job performance, and are even more powerful when combined with other tests or interviews. They are proven to:

• Increase objectivity in staff selection and development
• Improve individual and interpersonal effectiveness
• Enhance teamwork and organisational performance
• Improve staff performance, morale and retention

When used effectively, they also increase the transparency, speed and quality of line-management decisions about people, ensuring that best practices are more readily transferred from HR processes into action.

And they are manifestly not just for use in recruitment. Leadership development, teambuilding and organisational change are just three other contexts where psychometric tools are proven to deliver results.

Practitioners may be asked this question by respondents who are cynical about the ability of a psychometric to accurately represent them. Often, job candidates may have had bad experiences of being assessed in this way, and need reassurance that they are not being 'trapped' or 'tricked' by the process.

In fact, understanding your own and others' personality can lie at the core of feeling happy and fulfilled in your work. Self-awareness and the motivation to empathise with others can be the trigger for concrete improvement in the quality of working relationships, and in overall performance and productivity.

Done in an ethical and credible way, psychometric assessment hits at the heart of who you are, which couldn't be more relevant to the place where you spend so much of your life - at work.

Many people dismiss psychometrics as expensive and time-consuming. Whilst there is an initial outlay in training administrators and test interpreters, running costs are low and the long-term benefits are unrivalled. For example, their accuracy in predicting job-performance makes psychometrics really cost-effective - as anyone who knows the costs of recruiting replacement staff will testify.

Administering a test or questionnaire varies from ten minutes to over an hour. Often the questionnaires can be administered to many people at the same time, which can make them more time-efficient than other assessment or development methods.

OPP has developed many supporting materials and products for practitioners that provide ready-to-use solutions for applications from large-scale assessment centres to individual coaching.

Before using any assessment tool, an employer should determine which attributes and competencies are needed for the job. The chosen psychometric assessments should measure these, and will therefore reflect and be relevant to the job.

In addition, practitioners are trained to be competent in applying psychometric tools appropriately in different contexts. Use of a psychometric with a team or an individual is always grounded with an agreement about what the desired outcomes of the intervention are.

OPP can also offer Consultancy services for talent identification, leadership development and teams, where we tailor a programme for clients using a combination of psychometric tools and tried-and-tested business simulations. This provides a fully developed and bespoke solution to your business requirement.

An assessment centre is not a physical place; it is an event designed to evaluate people's behaviour in a variety of situations, and is used for recruitment or promotion purposes. Candidates are observed whilst they participate in activities and interact with each other in a range of situations that simulate business activities. Their performance is evaluated against a number of relevant, job-specific competencies.

The content and management of development centres are often similar to assessment centres, but their purpose is different. They are used to assist in individuals' development within an organisation, and provide an opportunity to identify gaps between current knowledge, skills and behaviours and future organisational requirements. Although there is an assessment element, the results are not used to make a selection decision, and there is a greater emphasis on feedback. Development centres typically last longer than assessment centres. They may use more varied exercises, in which participants can try out alternative ways of behaving and practise new skills. Assessors on development centres tend to be called observers or facilitators.

OPP's tools can assess personality style and preferences, critical reasoning ability and overall competence for a particular job or role. Depending on what exactly you want to measure and why, our assessments can be used for development or selection, and are usually accompanied by other types of assessment, such as a coaching programme or interviews.

In general, a respondent is asked to fill in a multiple-choice questionnaire, either online or in paper-and-pencil format. A qualified practitioner will then discuss and validate their results with them during a one-to-one feedback session, structured around a particular application.

Two factors are absolutely vital in ensuring fairness in psychometric assessment: accuracy and ethical practice.

All of OPP's instruments have been developed on a well respected theoretical basis, then checked for accuracy via a validation and improvement process that sometimes takes years to complete. This accuracy is measured by accepted industry standards of reliability and validity.

OPP actively promotes the ethical use of all its instruments, based around a set of unshakeable principles:

• Practitioners should be qualified before being allowed to purchase restricted materials
• A feedback session for respondents is always recommended to validate their results
• Instruments should not be used for the wrong application or for something they cannot measure (eg the MBTI tool is for development only)
• It should be recognised that psychometrics do not tell the whole story about a person, and should always be used in conjunction with other measures
• Psychometric test administration should adhere to the British Psychological Society's ethical guidelines, including the administration of tests under controlled conditions, telling people which tests they will be taking in advance and providing preview or practice materials.

Ability tests are extremely difficult to fake, and most instruments that are used in selection and recruitment have built-in measures that enable a qualified practitioner to identify where faking or distortion has occurred. For example, the Saville Aptitude Assessments have measures of test-taking styles speed, accuracy and caution, and the 16PF questionnaire contains Response Style Indices that tell the practitioner about Impression Management, Acquiescence and Infrequency.

It is also worth noting that distortion in test results is not always the product of deliberate faking. Respondents may feel nervous or cynical about the assessment, or they may have misunderstood the instructions. Different cultures also respond differently to the test-taking situation.

The British Psychological Society (BPS) has developed guidelines to ensure psychometric instruments are chosen and administered correctly by qualified users. This includes administering tests under controlled conditions to remove unfair advantage, and telling candidates in advance which tests they will be taking. Candidates should also be sent preview or practice materials.

It is the test administrator’s responsibility to find out about and account for any special needs, which must be done without compromising the validity of the test. If, for example, a candidate has a visual impairment that means they can't read the questions, they should be offered an alternative of the same test.

Following testing, all candidates should be offered feedback on their performance so they understand their results. Personal feedback is particularly valuable with personality questionnaires, where generic written reports can be easily misinterpreted.

Yes. It is straightforward to make reasonable adjustments to the assessment process in order to alleviate any potential disadvantage, depending on the specific requirements of the individual. OPP's Customer Service team are happy to provide advice for practitioners looking to adapt their assessment. We have published some guidelines outlining how to use psychometric tools with people with disabilities - download the pdf.

OPP also provides Braille versions of the MBTI and 16PF questionnaires - contact our Customer Service team to find out more.

There are three distinct categories of tests – ability tests, interest inventories and personality questionnaires.

• Most ability tests show how someone performs when solving problems. Some try to measure potential (aptitude) rather than current level of knowledge (achievement). Ability tests can be used both for selection and career development. In selection they allow an employer to gauge how successful someone is likely to be in certain roles, such as those requiring verbal ability. In career development they show where someone’s abilities lie.
• Interest inventories are used to help identify the kinds of work someone would be suited to. The Strong Interest Inventory®, developed by Edward Strong, compares a person’s preferred working style, interests and aversions with those of people employed in a wide range of occupations, to determine those the individual is most likely to enjoy. Interest inventories are used in career counselling, to inform career decisions, and in career development to stimulate mid-career evaluation and provide an understanding of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. These tests are not recommended for selection, since having interest in an area does not imply ability.
• Personality questionnaires help understand how people interact with others and what motivates them. While some tests, such as the 16PF® questionnaire, can be used in selection to match characteristics to a role, many, such as the MBTI® instrument, are designed solely for individual, team and organisational development, through increasing awareness and understanding of individual behaviour. They were carefully constructed for this and no other purpose.

In short, yes! Even the best-written and researched psychometric test in the world is only useful to your organisation if it assesses your needs.

When looking for objective measures of competencies or skills, you may find that the available tests are not suitable. They may be too hard, too easy, over-used in the market place, or simply not relevant.

OPP's consultants work closely with clients to determine how best to address their needs. We create tailored solutions ranging from new psychometric tests to work samples that allow candidates to face realistic challenges from the job. We also construct full business simulations suitable for assessment and development situations.

Examples of recent bespoke projects include:

• Developing computer-based ability tests for a recruitment company
• Creating tailor-made personality questionnaires for a selection company
• Designing and running a series of three-day business simulations for a multi-national company.

The MBTI questionnaire should never be used in recruitment or selection because it does not measure a person's skills or abilities - just their underlying preferences. These preferences are not necessarily reflected in their behaviour, because as complex and adaptable human beings, people are able to modify their behaviour according to what is most appropriate and useful in any given situation. The MBTI is not constructed using scales that can predict a person's behaviour: instead it uses broad categories to describe what motivates them.

In addition, the MBTI instrument is not designed to be a robust selection tool. It does not contain any of the standard faking scales contained within other personality assessments designed for this purpose. Because the MBTI framework is a process, not just a questionnaire, it encourages individuals to have a say in deciding their results and determining what this means for them. This would not be appropriate in a selection context.

There are plenty of other personality assessments on the market that have inbuilt mechanisms to make them ideal for selection. Examples from the OPP portfolio include the 16PF and CPI 260 instruments, which we can confidently recommend as useful selection tools.

The Myers-Briggs assessment is a psychometrically validated instrument built on decades of research. A wide body of data supports the assertion that, when properly applied, the Myers-Briggs instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Astrological interpretations often work using what are known as Barnum statements - ie statements that are usually true of anyone, regardless of personality differences between them. The MBTI questionnaire has been specifically tested to ensure that it does not rely on the Barnum effect, and the descriptions of the different MBTI types have been found to differentiate significantly between different people. This means if you read a report on a different MBTI type to your own best-fit type, you are unlikely recognise yourself in all the statements.

• If you want to complete the MBTI questionnaire with a professional in your area, we may be able to put you in touch with one of our qualified practitioners - just contact us.
• If you are interested in using the MBTI tool in your organisation for team development, leadership development, coaching, communication, decision-making, conflict resolution or any number of other business applications, our Consultancy team can help. Call 0845 603 9958 to speak to a representative.

In the UK and many other European countries two versions of the MBTI questionnaire are widely used: Step I and Step II.

• Step I is the UK equivalent of the American Form M. It was revised and anglicised to improve accuracy and relevance to European English users and has been translated into many European languages.
• Form M is the American equivalent of Step I.
• Form G is a version of Step I which was sold to the UK market before 1998. It is now obsolete.
• Step II uses a fuller set of questions and a complex computer scoring programme to divide each of the four MBTI preferences into a further five sub-scales. This gives more detailed information about an individual's preferences, differentiates between individuals of the same type and provides a greater understanding of preferences near the midpoint.
• Form Q is the American equivalent of Step II.
• Form K is an earlier version of Form Q (now obsolete).
• MMTIC is the abbreviated name of the Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children, a version of the MBTI questionnaire designed for children aged 7-13 years. This is not available from OPP.
• TIP is the abbreviation for the Type Indicator for Pets (no, we are not joking!). This is not available from OPP.

MBTI Step I is the first and most well known form of the MBTI questionnaire. It sorts you into one of 16 types, within four different preference pairs. You find out your best-fit type via a feedback session with a qualified MBTI practitioner.

MBTI Step II is a further questionnaire that you can take once you have your Step I type. It goes into greater detail about your personality by providing information about five facets within each of the four preference pairs. It complements Step I by giving a more fine-grained view of your preferences, motivations and outlook, and can be used to explain things about your personality that might seem inconsistent or confusing. It can also help you to clarify your Step I best-fit type if this has been difficult.

Note that it is possible to order Step I reports from a Step II questionnaire - so if you know someone is going to use both tools, you can get them to fill in a single questionnaire, and introduce the two sets of concepts to them gradually.

• Culture: Jung saw type as universal. That is, the personalities of all human beings are structured in accordance with type dichotomies, regardless of culture. Support for this universality comes from the fact that many translations of the MBTI questionnaire are used successfully. However, the expression of type may vary from culture to culture; for example, Introversion tends to be expressed slightly differently by people in America vs people in Japan.
• Age: An important aspect of Jung's theory is its focus on the development of personality throughout the life span. For example, in childhood and adolescence, type is not fully differentiated, and there is a 'trying out' of the functions. We get better at using a greater range of the preferences throughout life, although this can be helped or hindered according to the environment.
• Mood: One's preferred type does not change as it is inborn, but it is possible to use all of the preferences, and mood is likely to affect the choice of preference used. For example, under stress the inferior function, the preference least well developed, is expressed in a distorted way. This uncharacteristic behaviour is known as being 'in the grip'.

In the MBTI Team Report, team type is calculated by adding together how many of each of the letters occur in the team, and selecting the letter within each preference pair that appears the most frequently (a mode average). For example:

Types in the team: ENFJ, ISTP, ENTJ, ESTP, ENTP, INTJ
E: 4         I: 2
S: 2         N: 4
T: 5         F: 1
J: 3          P: 3
Team type: ENTJ

You’ll notice that there were an equal number of Js and Ps, and the team type was calculated in the J direction. This is because it is assumed that most organisations are predominantly ESTJ in culture, and so the team is likely to be influenced by this culture. However, if you are aware of a different culture in your organisation, it is important to consider this when applying this rule.

Some people also give a greater weighting to the team leader’s MBTI type when calculating team type. This is not the case in the MBTI Team Report available from OPP, but can be done if you are working out team type yourself.

Although there is no set cut off point for using the MBTI tool with younger people, as long as they have the reading capacity to understand the questionnaire, it is generally recommended that the MBTI tool may not be suitable for those younger than 13 (ref MBTI Manual, p 281). There is the MMTIC (Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children) in the US, which is available for use with children in grades 2-12 (ages 7-18), but it is aimed mostly for ages 7-12. This is available in Spanish, French, German, Korean as well as English. Further information can be found on the CAPT site. The MMTIC assessment can help children understand themselves better, and give parents and teachers better tools and insights to reach children with different learning styles.

For young adults (16-24), the MBTI tool can be really useful. Learning styles, self awareness, working with others and career counselling are the most common uses.

Things to be aware of when administering the MBTI to young adults:

• Emphasising the voluntariness and confidentiality of the process, as well as the individual's own part in determinign the results. This is particularly important as teachers, counsellors or professionals who administer the tool will probably be seen as authority figures, so respondent's answers may not be natural. Peer pressure and social desirability may be strong influences if they think that their results may be shared.
• When giving feedback, it is important to make sure the questions asked are relevant to someone who is not in a work environment (eg how do you operate in meetings?). Asking about how they work with other students on projects etc may be more applicable to them.

Although the fifth edition of the 16PF questionnaire has been available for over ten years, a number of people still use the fourth edition. The 16PF questionnaire does, however, offer some significant advantages over the earlier version:

• The questions are now shorter and less ambiguous. Questions which were unnecessarily complicated were rewritten or dropped. This makes the questionnaire clearer, fairer and more acceptable to those completing it.
• Some questions that could be challenged on the basis of gender, race, culture, religion or disability, or that showed statistical biases on these factors, have been removed.
• Some questions that were dated, or that were likely to become dated, were removed, giving the 16PF questionnaire a more contemporary feel.
• All the questions, other than those relating to Reasoning, now have the same consistent response format, with '?' as the middle response, making the questionnaire easier to complete.
• All of the Reasoning (Factor B) questions have now been moved to the end of the questionnaire. As a result, respondents find the questionnaire more straightforward to complete, and it is easier for administrators to ask respondents to omit these questions if desired.
• Questions that were seen as extremely socially desirable or undesirable have been removed, as have questions where there was a strong bias to a particular response. This means that the fifth edition is less prone to response biases than earlier versions of the questionnaire. The 16PF questionnaire also has three scales, or indices, to look at response biases – Impression Management, Acquiescence and Infrequency.
• Scale reliabilities have been improved, without significantly reducing the breadth of the factors. This means that 16PF users can have more confidence in the accuracy of their results and there is less likelihood that respondents will disagree with these results.
• The 16PF questionnaire has been standardised on a representative sample of the UK population, meaning that large and representative norm groups are available. British validity data is available and OPP has an ongoing programme of research. We are also happy to work with clients to develop their own norm tables.
• The 16PF questionnaire is available in a wide range of languages, including Danish, Dutch and French, which have also been standardised with local samples.
• New scale names have been developed, which are easier for people to understand and remember.
• An integrated profile chart and feedback sheet is available for the 16PF questionnaire.
• The 16PF Fifth Edition questionnaire is available via our online administration platform, and it is possible to order a variety of reports using this edition, including a Competency Report that can be tailored to your needs.

The basic personality structure underlying the test remains the same, which means a transfer to 16PF5 will be easy and hassle-free for 16PF4 users.

Whilst the FIRO-B and FIRO Business reports use the same questionnaire for respondents to fill in (the FIRO-B questionnaire), there are some key differences that may affect which type of report you choose:

• The FIRO Business uses more accessible, business-focused names for the interpersonal need areas. These are summarised below.

         FIRO-B term          FIRO Business term

         Inclusion                  Involvement
         Control                    Influence
         Affection                  Connection

• The FIRO Business is scored using a norm group that has been calibrated on an international sample, rather than local samples as with the FIRO-B. This means that the FIRO Business is particularly useful for multinational contexts. Using this norm group means that percentiles are used instead of the normal FIRO scales. This means the following changes to the scale cut-offs:

                         FIRO-B    FIRO Business

        Low           0-2           0-34
        Medium     3-6           35-64
        High          7-9           65-99

There is another important difference in the technical properties between FIRO-B and FIRO Business. Although both sets of reports are generated from the same questionnaire, the FIRO Business selectively uses only some of the questions, and scores the responses in their entirety (rather than the categorical scoring of FIRO-B, where each question is answered with a scale, which has a response cut-off). As a result, it is not recommended that you directly compare scores from FIRO-B and FIRO Business. To discuss this in more depth, please feel free to contact the Consultant Helpdesk on 0845 603 9958.

The ABLE Series is designed to measure how quickly an individual learns the skills and concepts needed for certain jobs.

The candidates learn as they go along, and some of this learning is likely to be retained and applied if they take the test a second time. Consequently, it is not recommended that candidates be given any of the tests more than once.

If re-administration cannot be avoided, it is recommended to leave at least six months between testing sessions.

Not all of the tests in the ABLE Series require numerical calculations to be carried out. For these tests, providing a calculator will at best be irrelevant and at worst serve to confuse the candidate.

Where numerical work is needed, it is not complex and should not, in general, require the use of a calculator. It should also be noted that the norms in the ABLE Series Manual and Norm Supplement are from candidates who were not given calculators, so if you choose to give your candidates calculators their scores cannot be accurately compared with these standard norm groups.

The cost of all training materials are included in the course fee. Course materials are extensive and should provide you with all the information and resources to get started with the tool. Further books and resources are available from OPP.

For the MBTI Step I Qualifying and Conversion courses, delegates are asked to receive feedback on the tool before the course. In many cases, delegates may have already received feedback in the past and so won't need to do it again. Others may nominate somebody in their organisation to provide feedback, or OPP can provide details of practitioners in their area. OPP can also provide feedback for a charge of £100 + VAT per hour. This is a special rate extended to training delegates only.

a. Transfers
Once a workshop has been booked, should a participant wish to transfer from one workshop date to another, no transfer fees are payable if more than 28 days' notice is given. If less than seven days' notice is given, 50% of the workshop fee is payable. If between seven and 28 days' notice is given, 25% of the fee is payable.

b. Two-part workshops
When courses are in two parts (for example there is a follow-up day, or when the workshop is divided into two parts) the date of the second part is linked to a specific first part. Provided that space is available, transfer to a different second part from the one scheduled may be made, but there will be a charge of £500+VAT.

c. Cancellation
No cancellation fee is payable (except a charge for any pre-course materials already dispatched) if more than 28 days' notice is given. If between 28 and seven days' notice is given, 50% of the workshop fee is payable. If less than seven days' notice is given, the full fee is payable.

Company credits can be shared amongst all qualified practitioners within an organisation.

For example, If Joe Bloggs from AB Corp bought 100 Company MBTI Step I credits for Profile Reports, these credits would be seen by all MBTI Step I qualified practitioners from AB Corp when they entered their individual OPPassessment account, and they could all use these to buy Step I Profile Reports. However, if Joe Bloggs from AB Corp purchased 100 Practitioner credits for MBTI Step I Profile Reports, only he could see these and use them.

The Disability Discrimination Act (1995) places a duty on employers not to discriminate against disabled people in any area of employment. The Act specifically states that employers have a responsibility to adapt assessment methods to take account of a specific candidate's needs.

In practice there are a number of actions you can take.

Talk to the individual about their specific needs and how they prefer to access printed material. Demonstrate preview materials in their preferred format and be clear about how long they will have to read the materials. Arrange the testing area to accommodate any special materials.

Consult the test publisher and consider the test administration options. Some tests are produced in Braille, large print or as spoken-word tapes and adapted software may also be available. If not, the publisher may be able to advise on alternative, comparable tests. Remember, enlarging test materials with a photocopier without prior permission will break copyright laws, so prepare well in advance. The use of simple adaptations such as bright lighting or magnifying equipment may also help. If readers are involved they should be objective and preferably trained in test administration.

If the test has been appropriately adapted, scores can be interpreted in essentially the same manner as for a sighted candidate. However, cut-off scores or other mechanistic interpretations of the results should be avoided. In particular, remember that the standard error of measurement may not apply to non-standard administration of the test.